Paul Vallely

Sources are credited in full on their first mention, with hyperlinks where available. Thereafter only an abbreviated source line is given.

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 6:

The Business of the State

(pages 200–236) 

1. Thomas Harman, A Caveat or Warening for Common Cursetors Vulgarely Called Vagabones (1566, 1567, 1568 and 1573, repr. London, 1814).
2. ibid, pp. 33–7.
3. ibid, p. 38.
4. ibid, pp. 38–9.
5. It was preceded by a volume that Harman refers to as a ‘small briefe’ by John Awdelay entitled The Fraternitye of Vacabondes, London, 1560–1, but it was Harman who introduced the word ‘rogue’ into English, according to Linda Woodbridge, Vagrancy, Homelessness, and English Renaissance Literature, Chicago, IL, 2001, p. 75.
6. Harman, A Caveat or Warening, pp. 13–17.
7. ibid, p. 33.
8. ibid, pp. 30–1.
9. ibid, pp. 19–23.
10. ibid, pp. 23–4.
11. ibid, pp. 18–19.
12. ibid, pp. 26–7.
13. ibid, pp. 27–9.
14. Frank Aydelotte, Elizabethan Rogues and Vagabonds, Oxford, 1913, p. 92.
15. Harman, A Caveat or Warening, pp. 25–6.
16. ibid, pp. 29–30.
17. ibid, pp. 48–9.
18. ibid, pp. iii–iv.
19. Paul Slack, Poverty and Policy in Tudor and Stuart England, London, 1988, pp. 23, 116, 119–21. But both Starkey and Marshall went on to propose a major innovation in how the state should respond to the unemployed; see p. 000 below.
20. A. L. Beier, The Problem of the Poor in Tudor and Early Stuart England, Oxford, 1983, p. 14.
21. ibid, p. 16.
22. Shakespeare, King Lear, Act II, scene ii.
23. ibid.
24. Gillian Woods, King Lear: Madness, the Fool and Poor Tom, British Library, 2016.
25. ‘Homilie Against Idlenesse’, Certain Sermons or Homilies 1547–1571, ed. Rickey and Stroupe, Gainesville, 1968, p. 249. The First Book of the Homilies were dated 31 July 1547 were to be read by clergymen to the people by order of Henry VIII. Twelve in number, they were probably in the main by Cranmer and perhaps Ridley, Bonner and Bacon.
26. Thomas Adams, The Devills Banket, London, 1614, L2v, quoted in William C. Carroll, Fat King, Lean Beggar: Representations of Poverty in the Age of Shakespeare, Ithaca, NY, 2018, p. 4.
27. Richard Vines, Sermons preached upon several publike and eminent occasions, London, 1656.
28. Thomas Dekker, Greevous Grones for the Poore, London, 1621.
29. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, pp. 13–15.
30. Carroll, Fat King, Lean Beggar, p. 5.
31. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 16.
32. Harman, A Caveat or Warening, pp. 11–13.
33. John Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, London, 1971, 2nd edn, 1986, p. 2
34. Thomas More, Utopia, Ware, 1997, p. 32.
35. Beier, The Problem of the Poor.
36. ibid, p. 12.
37. Letter from Edward Hext, a JP in Somerset, to Lord Burghley, 25 September 1596, printed in Aydelotte, Elizabethan Rogues and Vagabonds, Appendix, pp. 167–73.
38. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 30.
39. Patricia Fumerton, ‘Making vagrancy (in)visible – the economics of disguise in early modern rogue pamphlets’, in C. Dionne and S. Mentz, eds, Rogues and Early Modern English Culture, Ann Arbor, MI, 2004, p. 196.
40. Harman, A Caveat or Warening, p. 42.
41. Fumerton, ‘Making vagrancy (in)visible’, p. 198.
42. Joan Thirsk, Economic Policy and Projects: The Development of a Consumer Society in Early Modern England, Oxford, 1978, p. 6.
43. A. L. Beier, Masterless Men: The Vagrancy Problem in England 1560–1640, London, 1985, p. 89.
44. ibid, p. 124. Joan Thirsk points out, ‘poorer men had two and three occupations at once. Licensed alehouse keepers in Staffordshire, for example, were also tailors or weavers, shearmen or wheelwrights, husbandmen, shoe makers, dyers, or joiners’. Thirsk, Economic Policy and Projects, p. 172.
45. Beier, Masterless Men, p. 88.
46. J. S. Cockburn, ed., Crime in England 1550 to 1800, Princeton, NJ, 1977, p.62.
47. C. N. Trueman, ‘The Poor in Elizabethan England’.
48. Letter from Edward Hext, a JP in Somerset, to Lord Burghley, 25 September 1596, printed in Aydelotte, Elizabethan Rogues and Vagabonds, Appendix, p. 172.
49. Slack, Poverty and Policy in Tudor and Stuart England, p. 28, quoting A. V. Judges, The Elizabethan Underworld, London, 1965, p. xxiv. The dark-skinned strangers were reckoned to be practitioners of the occult. In 1530 a law was passed outlawing them and making those who remained in the country subject to imprisonment and seizure of their belongings. The gypsies, like the rest of the vagabond class, were scapegoats for a range of social problems. The fact that they were highly visible, as well as highly mobile, aggravated the perception that they constituted a social danger.
50. Beier, The Problem of the Poor , p. 4.
51. ibid, p. 5.
52. Slack, Poverty and Policy in Tudor and Stuart England, p. 23.
53. Hugh Cunningham, A History of Western Philanthropy, Centre for Charitable Giving and Philanthropy (CGAP) paper, June 2013.
54. Sir Matthew Hale, A Discourse Touching Provision for the Poor, London, 1683, pp. 2–3.
55. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 7.
56. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 10.
57. The problems created by enclosures, about which Sir Thomas More launched a savage attack in Utopia, were so bad that parliamentary commissions were established to investigate the problem in 1517 and again in 1548. See Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 6.
58. Slack, Poverty and Policy in Tudor and Stuart England, p. 5.
59. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, pp. 10, 13.
60. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 30.
61. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, pp. 13–14.
62. ibid, p. 6.
63. William Harrison, The Description of England, Written for Holinshed’s Chronicles, New York, 2001, Chapter IX, Of Provision Made for the Poor, [1577, Book III, Chapter 5; 1587, Book II, Chapter 10].
64. ibid.
65. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 23.
66. Paul Slack, The English Poor Law 1531 to 1782, Cambridge, 1995, p. 7.
67. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, pp. 17–18.
68. Slack, The English Poor Law 1531 to 1782, p. 7.
69. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, pp. 17–18.
70. ibid, p. 15.
71. ibid, p. 19.
72. Slack, The English Poor Law 1531 to 1782, p. 6, quoting Brian Pullan, ‘Catholics and the Poor in Early Modern Europe’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, December 1976, and Catharina Lis and Hugo Soly, Poverty and Capitalism in Pre-Industrial Europe, Brighton, 1979.
73. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 1.
74. The Statutes at Large from the First Year of King Richard III to the Thirty-First Year of King Henry VIII, IV, Cambridge, 1763, p. 55.
75. The hundred was a small administrative area dating from Saxon times. Every county in England was divided into hundreds.
76. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 37.
77. 22 Henry VIII c.12.
78. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 30.
79. John-Christophe Agnew, Worlds Apart: The Market and the Theatre in Anglo-American Thought, 1550–1750, Cambridge, 1986, p. 66.
80. Roger Lockyer and Peter Gaunt, Tudor and Stuart Britain: 1485–1714, 4th edn., London, 2019, p. 182.
81. G. R. Elton, ‘An early Tudor Poor Law’, Economic History Review, VI, 1953, pp. 55–6.
82. An Act concerning the Suppression or Dissolution of Certain Religious Houses, 1532, 27 Henry VIII 28, in William Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum: a history of the abbies and other monasteries, hospitals, frieries and cathedral and collegiate churches, with their dependencies, in England and Wales, also of such Scotch, Irish, and French monasteries as were any manner connected with religious houses in England, London, 1819, p. 1,654.
83. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, pp. 20–2.
84. Ben Johnson, ‘Dissolution of the Monasteries’, Historic UK.
85. Marjorie K. McIntosh, ‘Poverty, Charity, and Coercion in Elizabethan England’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, XXXV:3, Winter 2005, pp. 460–1. McIntosh conducted a detailed study of all hospitals and almshouses founded between 937 and the sixteenth century. See also Neil S. Rushton, ‘Monastic charitable provision in Tudor England: quantifying and qualifying poor relief in the early sixteenth century’, Continuity and Change, XVI, 2001.
86. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 21.
87. Mcintosh, ‘‘Poverty, Charity, and Coercion in Elizabethan England’, p.462.
88. 27 Henry VIII c.12.
89. Gladys Boone, The Poor Law of 1601 with some consideration of modern developments of the poor law problem, Birmingham, 1917.
90. G. R. Elton, ‘Studies in Tudor and Stuart politics and government: papers and reviews 1946–1972: Parliament political thought – papers and reviews 1946–1972’, vol. 2, Cambridge, 1974, p. 245. Also Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 38.
91. Slack, The English Poor Law 1531 to 1782, p. 10.
92. ibid, p. 9.
93. An Act For Punishment of Sturdy Vagabonds and Beggars, 1536, 27 Henry VIII c. 12.
94. P. A. Fideler, ‘Poverty, policy and providence: the Tudors and the poor’, in Political Thought and the Tudor Commonwealth, Fideler and T. F. Mayer, eds, Philadelphia, PA, 1992, p. 202.
95. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 39.
96. Slack, The English Poor Law 1531 to 1782, p. 9.
97. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 38.
98. ibid, pp. 38–40.
99. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 34.
100. Lockyer and Gaunt, Tudor and Stuart Britain, pp. 182–3.
101. 1 Edward VI c.3.
102. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 39.
103. An Act for the Punishment of Vagabonds and for the Relief of the Poor and Impotent Persons, 1547, 1 Edward VI c.3, quoted in Barrett L. Beer, Rebellion and Riot: Popular Disorder in England During the Reign of Edward VI, Kent State, OH, 2005, p. 200.
104. 2 and 3 Philip and Mary c.5.
105. 5 Elizabeth I c.3.
106. Arthur F. Kinney, ed., Rogues, Vagabonds, and Sturdy Beggars – A New Gallery of Tudor and Early Stuart Rogue Literature Exposing the Lives, Times, and Cozening Tricks of the Elizabethan Underworld, Amherst, MA, 1990, pp. 45–6.
107. Beier, Masterless Men, London, 1985, p. 43.
108. Aydelotte, Elizabethan Rogues and Vagabonds, p. 54.
109. ibid, p. 55.
110. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 32.
111. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 45.
112. 14 Elizabeth I c.5.
113. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 46.
114. ibid, p. 46.
115. 18 Elizabeth I c.3.
116. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 10.
117. A. L. Beier and Roger Findlay, eds, London – 1500 to 1700: The Making of the Metropolis, London, 1986, pp. 18–19.
118. Slack, The English Poor Law 1531 to 1782, p. 8; Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 25.
119. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 59.
120. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 28; Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 43.
121. Slack, The English Poor Law 1531 to 1782, p. 19.
122. James J. Fishman, The Political Use of Private Benevolence: The Statute of Charitable Uses, Pace Law Faculty Publications, paper 487, p. 17.
123. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 35.
124. Slack, The English Poor Law 1531 to 1782, p. 12.
125. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 59.
126. ‘Orders . . . for the better provision of the poor, the punishment of vagabonds, the setting on work of loiterers and other idle persons and the expulsion of strong beggars, the maintaining of the indigent and needy, and the practicing of youth to be trained in work, in learning and the fear of God, so as no person should have need to go begging nor be suffered to beg within the said city’, reprinted in Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, Document 19, pp. 100–2.
127. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 60.
128. All these details are taken from Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, pp. 58–67 and 100–2.
129. McIntosh, ‘Poverty, Charity, and Coercion in Elizabethan England’, p.467.
130. ibid, p. 464.
131.  ibid, p. 467.
132. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 15, whose more recent research contradicts Jordan’s 1959 assertions.
133. McIntosh, ‘Poverty, charity, and coercion’, pp. 469–70.
134. Fishman, quoting Penry Williams, The Tudor Regime, Oxford, 1979, p. 200.
135. Slack, The English Poor Law 1531 to 1782, p. 16.
136. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 2.
137. ibid, p. 17.
138. Shakespeare, Coriolanus, Act I, scene I, line 95.
139. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 48.
140. ibid, p. 2.
141. ibid, p. 49.
142. E. M. Leonard, The Early History of English Poor Relief, Cambridge, 1900, p. 73.
143. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 49
144. Edward Hext, Letter to Burghley, dated 25 September 1596.
145. Leonard, The Early History of English Poor Relief, p. 76; Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, pp. 52–3.
146. 39 Elizabeth I c.3.
147. 39 Elizabeth I c.4.
148. James Dunstan, A treatise on the poor law of England; being a review of the origin, and various alterations that have been made in the law of settlements and removals; and the proposed schemes relating to national, union, and other extended areas for raising poor rates, by equalised assessments, or otherwise, London, 1850, pp. 41–4; Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, pp. 52–3.
149. Leonard, The Early History of English Poor Relief, pp. 76–8.
150. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 34.
151. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 53.
152. 43 Elizabeth I c.2.
153. Sir George Nicholls, A History of the English Poor Law, vol. 1, London, 1904, p. 189.
154. Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, p. 53.
155. 43 Elizabeth I c.4. The Statutes at Large: From the Magna Charta, to the End of the Eleventh Parliament of Great Britain, Anno 1761 [continued to 1806], ed. J. Bentham, London, 1763, p. 43.
156. B. Kirkman Gray, A History of English Philanthropy from the Dissolution of the Monasteries to the Taking of the First Census, London, 1905, p. 196.
157. Ben Jonson, The New Inn, Act V, scene v, ed. M. Hattaway, Manchester, 1984, p. 198.
158. Brian Pullan, ‘Catholics, Protestants, and the poor in early modern Europe’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 35:3, Winter 2005, p. 447.
159. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 23.
160. ibid, p. 29.
161. Slack, The English Poor Law 1531 to 1782, p. 13.
162. Beier, The Problem of the Poor, p. 36. The Elizabethan Poor Law was not repealed until 1834.

The interview with David Sainsbury was conducted on 17 September 2019

Chapter 7:

The Philanthropist as Activist

(pages 237–283)

1. William E. Hart, John Howard – An Appreciation, Saint John, New Brunswick, 2015, p. 5.
2. James Baldwin Brown, Memoirs of the Public and Private Life of John Howard, the Philanthropist, London, 1823 (2nd edn), pp. 19–21.
3. Hart, John Howard, p. 6.
4. R. S. E. Hinde, The British Penal System (1773–1950), London, 1951: ‘Howard’s religious enthusiasm even extended to his housing programme. This excellent and extraordinary man, wrote an anonymous admirer, constantly builds a cottage every year on his own estate, and puts a poor family in possession of it, on express condition, however, that they attend divine service every Sabbath, at Church, at Mass, at Meeting or Synagogue. If Howard was actively Christian, he was certainly broad-minded and tolerant of the religious beliefs of those who might disagree with him. He was no bigot’, quoted in William E. Hart, John Howard – An Appreciation, Saint John, New Brunswick, 2015, p. 1.
5. Howard’s diary entry for 2 September, 1770, quoted in Hart, John Howard, p. 4.
6. John Howard, The State of the Prisons in England and Wales, with Preliminary Observations, and an Account of some Foreign Prisons, 1777, vols 1–2, Cambridge, 2013.
7. 14 Geo. III c.20.
8. 14 Geo. III c.59.
9. Correspondence of Jeremy Bentham, ed T. L. S. Sprigge, vol. 2, London, 2017, p. 106.
10. Baldwin Brown, Memoirs of John Howard, p. 416.
11. ibid, p. 278.
12. ibid, p. 420.
13. ibid, p. 253.
14. ibid, pp. 249–50.
15. ibid, p. 258.
16. William Hepworth Dixon, John Howard and the Prison-World of Europe. From original and authentic documents, Boston, MA, 1852, p. 375.
17. ibid, p. 334.
18. Baldwin Brown, Memoirs of John Howard, p. 325.
19. Edmund Burke, The beauties of the late Right Hon. Edmund Burke, selected from the writings, & of that extraordinary man, alphabetically arranged. To which is prefixed, A sketch of the life, with some original anecdotes of Mr. Burke, London, 1798.
20. William E. Hart, John Howard – An Appreciation, Saint John, NB, 2015, quoting Matthew 6:3–4.
21. John Howard, An Account of the Principal Lazarettos in Europe, with various papers relative to the Plague: together with further observations on some Foreign Prisons and Hospitals; and additional remarks on the present state of those in Great Britain and Ireland, Warrington, 1789. Note: lazaretto is the English spelling of the Italian lazzaretto.
22. Baldwin Brown, Memoirs of John Howard, p. 434.
23. ibid, p. 463.
24. ibid, p. 251.
25. ibid, p. 575.
26. The Gentleman’s Magazine, 79, 1796, p. 181.
27. Edgar Gibson, The Life of John Howard, London, 1901, p. 183.
28. François Fénelon, Dialogues of the Dead, written in French by the Archbishop of Cambray, translated into English from the best Paris edition, London, 1760, p. 74.
29. ibid, p. 78.
30. Andrew Michael Ramsay, Discourse pronounced at the reception of Freemasons by Monsieur de Ramsay, Grand Orator of the Order, 1737, see George D. Henderson, Chevalier Ramsay, London, 1952.
31. Arthur Gautier, Replacing Charity, Anticipating the Welfare State: A Conceptual Genealogy of Philanthropy in France since the Age of Enlightenment, ESSEC Business School, 2017, p. 6.
32. ibid, p. 9.
33. Catherine Duprat, Le temps des philanthropes: la philanthropie parisienne des Lumières à la monarchie de Juillet, Paris, 1993, p. 63, quoted in Gautier, Replacing Charity, pp. 11 and 13.
34. Basedow in 1768 published a book, Vorstellung an Menschenfreunde für Schulen, nebst dem Plan eines Elementarbuches der menschlichen Erkenntnisse (‘Idea to philanthropists for schools, along with the plan of an elementary book of human knowledge’).
35. See Gautier, Replacing Charity, for the detail here.
36. 13 and 14 Charles II c.12.
37. 3 William & Mary c.11.
38. Isaac Wood, Some account of the Shrewsbury House of Industry, its establishment and regulations: with hints to those who may have similar institutions in view, Shrewsbury, 1795, p. 31.
39. Katherine Ibbett, Compassion’s Edge: Fellow-Feeling and its Limits in Early Modern France, Philadelphia, PA, 2018, p. 15.
40. John Piper, Amazing Grace in the Life of William Wilberforce, Wheaton, 2006, p. 10.
41. Stephen Tomkins, William Wilberforce: A Biography, Oxford, 2007, pp. 27–31. Jonathan Aitken in Piper, Amazing Grace, pp. 10–13; Christopher Hancock, William Wilberforce (1759–1833): The Shrimp Who Stopped Slavery, Springfield, MA, 2007;
42. Quoted by Wilberforce’s sons Robert Isaac Wilberforce and Samuel Wilberforce, The Life of William Wilberforce, vol. 1, London, 1838, p. 69.
43. Tomkins, William Wilberforce, p. 54.
44. John Pollock, Wilberforce, London, 1977, p. 223.
45. Hancock, William Wilberforce, p. 3.
46. William Hague, William Wilberforce: The Life of the Great Anti-Slave Trade Campaigner, London, 2007, pp. 250–6, 286, 441–2.
47. William Cobbett, Cobbett’s Political Register, XLVII, London, 1823, p. 516.
48. See Tomkins, William Wilberforce, Piper, Amazing Grace, and Hancock, William Wilberforce.
49. 9 George 1, c.7.
50. An Account of Several Workhouses for Employing and Maintaining the Poor, London, 2nd edn, 1732, p. iii.
51. ibid, 1st edn, 1725, p. vi.
52. Paul Slack, Poverty and Policy in Tudor and Stuart England, London, 1988, p. 33; Roy Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century, London, 1982, pp. 311–12.
53. G. V. Portus, Caritas Anglicana, London, 1912, p. 49
54. Quoted in Porter, English Society, p. 312.
55. Timothy Hitchcock, Introduction, Richard Hutton’s Complaints Book: The Notebook of the Steward of the Quaker Workhouse at Clerkenwell, 1711–1737, ed. T. Hitchcock, London, 1987, pp. vii–xxiii.
56. T. Hitchcock, ‘Paupers and preachers: the SPCK and the parochial workhouse movement’, in L. Davison, T. Hitchcock, T. Keirn and R. B. Shoemaker (eds), Stilling the Grumbling Hive: The Responses to Social and Economic Problems in England 1689–1750, New York, 1992, p. 152.
57. David Owen, English Philanthropy 1660 to 1960, Cambridge, MA, 1964, p.21.
58. Sally Tye, Religion, the SPCK and the Westminster Workhouses: ‘Re-Enchanting’ the Eighteenth-Century Workhouse, Ph.D thesis, Oxford Brookes, 2014.
59. Owen, English Philanthropy, p. 11.
60. ibid, p. 16.
61. C. E. R. Robinson, Almsgiving and the Offertory, Gravesend, 1866, p. 11, quoted in Sarah Flew, ‘Unveiling the anonymous philanthropist: charity in the nineteenth century’, Journal of Victorian Culture, 20:1, 2015, p. 25.
62. Mary Gwladys Jones, Charity School Movement: A Study of Eighteenth-Century Puritanism in Action, Cambridge, 1938 (2013), p. 72.
63. ibid, p. 59.
64. Spectator, 294, 6 February 1712.
65. Joseph Addison, The Guardian, 105, 11 July 1713.
66. Porter, English Society, p. 303.
67. Slack, Poverty and Policy, p. 43.
68. Porter, English Society, p. 303.
69. Albert Rosenberg, ‘The London dispensary for the sick-poor’, Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 14:1, January 1959, p. 46.
70. Hugh Cunningham, ‘The multi-layered history of Western philanthropy’, The Routledge Companion to Philanthropy, London, 2016, p. 47.
71. William Dodd, An Account of the Rise, Progress, and Present State of the Magdalen Hospital, London, 1776, p. 3.
72. Letter from Horace Walpole to George Montague, 28 January 1760, quoted in Rebecca Lea McCarthy, Origins of the Magdalene Laundries: An Analytical History, Jefferson, NC, 2010, pp. 179–80.
73. Sarah Lloyd, ‘“Pleasure’s golden bait”: prostitution, poverty and the Magdalen hospital in eighteenth-century London’, History Workshop Journal, 41, 1996, pp. 59–60.
74. ‘What is a Foundling’, Foundling Museum website.
75. Joseph Addison, Guardian, 105, 11 July 1713; Owen, English Philanthropy, 53–4.
76. Sarah Jordan, The Anxieties of Idleness: Idleness in Eighteenth-Century British Literature and Culture, London, 2003, p. 51.
77. Anthony Highmore, Pietas Londinensis: The History, Design, and Present State of the Various Public Charities in and near London, London, 1814, p.813.
78. From Hanway’s memorial in Westminster Abbey.
79. J. Hanway, An Earnest Appeal for Mercy to the Children of the Poor, London, 1766, p. 68.
80. T. Hitchcock and R. B. Shoemaker, London Lives: Poverty, Crime and the Making of a Modern City, 1690–1800, Cambridge, 2015, p. 291.
81. Jonas Hanway, Encyclopaedia Britannica, London, 1911.
82. Slack, Poverty and Policy, p. 44.
83. Joseph Massie, A Plan for the Establishment of Charity-Houses for Exposed or Deserted Women and Girls, and for Penitent Prostitutes, London, 1758, p. 9.
84. Quoted in Porter, English Society, p. 310.
85. Cunningham, ‘The multi-layered history’, p. 51.
86. Hannah More, An Estimate of the Religion of the Fashionable World, London, 1791, p. 42.
87. Hugh Cunningham, A History of Western Philanthropy, p. 22.
88. Sarah Lloyd, ‘Pleasing spectacles and elegant dinners: conviviality, benevolence, and charity anniversaries in eighteenth-century London’, Journal of British Studies, 41:1, 2002, pp. 23–4.
89. William Cobbett, Cobbett’s Weekly Political Register, 1823, p. 516.
90. Debate in the House of Commons, 8 April 1799, Debrett, LIII–LIV, quoted in Kenneth Morgan, The Birth of Industrial Britain: 1750–1850, London, 2013, p.141.
91. William Hazlitt, The Spirit of the Age, London, 1825, p. 185.
92. Gautier, Replacing Charity, 20–1, quoting C. Gothot-Mersch, ‘Autour de la philanthropie. Réseaux de motifs obsessionnels chez Flaubert’, Bulletin de L’Académie Royale de Langue et de Littérature Françaises de Belgique, 1997, pp. 397–410.
93. Cunningham, A History of Western Philanthropy, p. 23; quoting C. Hall, Macaulay and Son: Architects of Imperial Britain, New Haven, CT, and London, 2012, pp. 325–6.
94. George Eliot, Middlemarch, 1871–2, New York, 1985, p. 470.
95. Hugh Cunningham, ‘Philanthropy and its critics: a history’, in New Philanthropy and Social Justice, ed. Behrooz Morvaridi, Bristol, 2015, p. 25.
96. A. W. Coats, Poverty in the Victorian Age, Farnborough, 1973, pp. 121, 454–5.
97. Bernard Mandeville, The Fable of the Bees: or, Private Vices, Public Benefits, London, 1714.
98. Thomas Secker, Sermon XVI, The Works of Thomas Secker, vol. 1, London, 1811, p. 259.
99. ‘An Essay on Charity, and Charity-Schools’, The Fable of the Bees, 2nd edn, London, 1723, p. 294.
100. Jeremy Bentham, ‘Tracts on Poor Laws and pauper management’, The Works of Jeremy Bentham, vol. 8, Edinburgh, 1838–43.
101. The Westminster Review, II, July–October 1824, London, 1924, p. 99.
102. Thomas Robert Malthus, A Letter to Samuel Whitbread Esq MP on His Proposed Bill for the Amendment of the Poor Laws, 2nd edition, London, 1807, pp. 5–6.
103. Francis Canavan, The Political Economy of Edmund Burke, New York, 1995, p. 140.
104. Alexis de Tocqueville, Memoir on Pauperism, trans. Seymour Drescher, with an Introduction by Gertrude Himmelfarb, London, 1997, p. 17.
105. ibid, p. 30.
106. Himmelfarb in her Introduction to ibid, p. 13.
107. ibid, p. 36.
108. ibid, p. 37.
109. ibid, p. 31.
110. ibid, p. 37.
111. George Dyer, A Dissertation on the Theory and Practice of Benevolence, London, 1795, pp. 35–6.
112. The Anti-Jacobin Review, 11 December 1797, 39:1.
113. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, New York, 1964, p.420 note.
114. Cunningham, A History of Western Philanthropy, p. 12.
115. Frederick Liardet, Riot in Kent – Report on the State of the Peasantry, London, 1838, p. 55.
116. Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844: With a Preface Written in 1892, London, 1892, p. 278.
117. ibid, p. 167.
118. Charles Fourier, De l’Anarchie industrielle et scientifique, Paris, 1847, p.56.
119. Karl Marx, Poverty of Philosophy, 1847, quoted in Gautier, Replacing Charity, Anticipating the Welfare State, 22.
120. P-J. Proudhon, Du principe fédératif et de la nécessité de reconstituer le parti de la revolution, Paris, 1863, p. 305.
121. Chris Waters, British Socialists and the Politics of Popular Culture, 1884–1914, Manchester, 1990, pp. 65–70.
122. The Labour Prophet, January 1893, p. 5.
123. The Socialist, November 1894, p. 4.
124. Waters, British Socialists and the Politics of Popular Culture, 88.
125. Sheffield Guardian, 28 September 1906, p. 1.
126. The Cinderella Club, Souvenir 1913, Manchester, 1913.
127. Waters, British Socialists, p. 70.
128. Forward, 17 March 1906; Waters, British Socialists, p. 71.
129. The Clarion, 10 October, 31 October and 28 November 1896; Waters, British Socialists, p. 70.
130. Waters, British Socialists, p. 77.
131. The Clarion, 8 June 1895.
132. Waters, British Socialists, p. 75.
133. William Booth, In Darkest England and the Way Out, London, 1890, pp. 237–40.
134. Justice, 12 June, 1 July and 22 July 1893.
135. William Morris, How I Became a Socialist, first published in Justice, 16 June 1894.
136. Waters, British Socialists, p. 78.
137. Ancoats Recreation Committee, Programmes of the Autumn and Winter Work of the ARC, Manchester, 1893; Waters, British Socialists, p. 79.
138. Spencer, in 1885, quoted in Tocqueville, Memoir on Pauperism (introduction by Himmelfarb), 1992, p. 309.
139. W. H. Murray, The Scottish Himalayan Expedition, London, 1951.

The interview with Bob Geldof was conducted on 18 October 2019

Chapter 8:

Victorian Virtues and Vices

(pages 284–333)

1. Ragged Schools was a name commonly given after about 1840 to the various independent charity schools set up to provide free education, food, clothing and even lodging to children too poor for their parents to pay. They were usually found in poor working-class districts of the rapidly expanding industrial towns. In 1844 a Ragged Schools Union was set up with Lord Shaftesbury as chairman.
2. Gillian Darley, Octavia Hill: A Life, London, 1990; Gillian Darley, Octavia Hill: Social Reformer and Founder of the National Trust, London, 2010; Gillian Darley, ‘Octavia Hill 1838–1912’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford, 2004.
3. C. E. Maurice, Life of Octavia Hill, London, 1913, p. 59.
4. ibid, p. 30.
5. In evidence to the Select Commission on the Dwellings of the Poor, Parliamentary Blue Books, 1882.
6. David Owen, English Philanthropy, 1660 to 1960, Cambridge, MA, 1965, 387.
7. Henrietta Barnett, Canon Barnett: His Life, Works and Friends, London, 1918, p. 135.
8. Octavia Hill, ‘Management of a London court’, Macmillan’s Magazine, XX, London, 1869.
9. Octavia Hill, ‘Cottage property in London’, Fortnightly Review, VI, 1866, p.682.
10. Owen, English Philanthropy, 388.
11. Octavia Hill, ‘The importance of aiding the poor without almsgiving’, Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, London, 1869, p. 589.
12. The Times, 14 August 1912.
13. Octavia Hill, ‘Organised work’, Macmillan’s Magazine, XX, 1869, p. 225.
14. Anthony S. Wohl, ‘Octavia Hill and the homes of the London poor’, Journal of British Studies, 10:2, May, 1971, p. 118, quoting Octavia Hill, ‘Blank Court’, Macmillan’s Magazine, XXIV, and The Times, 15 August 1912.
15. Octavia Hill, Letter to my Fellow-Workers, London, 1881.
16. Hugh Cunningham, A History of Western Philanthropy, 16.
17. Frank Prochaska, Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century England, Oxford, 1980, pp. 224–5.
18. Frank Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse, London, 1988, p. 10.
19. Beatrice Webb, My Apprenticeship, London, 1926, p. 90.
20. R. J. Wyatt, Octavia Hill and The Crown Estate – a Continuing Legacy?, London, 2000, p. 2.
21. Hill, ‘Management of a London court’, 1869.
22. Octavia Hill, The Work of Rent-Collecting, Edinburgh, 1902, p. 4, quoted in Robert H. Bremner, ‘“‘An iron scepter twined with roses”’: The Octavia Hill system of housing management’, Social Service Review, 39:2, 1965, p. 224.
23. Report of the 1881–2 Select Committee, Q 2980.
24. Octavia Hill, ‘Blank Court,’ Macmillan’s Magazine, XXIV, 1871, p. 464.
25. Owen, English Philanthropy, 389.
26. Hill, ‘Cottage property in London’, p. 682.
27. Report of the Royal Commission on the Housing of the Working Classes, 1884–5, Q. 8967.
28. Justice, 29 March 1884, quoted in Wohl, ‘‘Octavia Hill and the homes of the London poor’, 118–19.
29. Report of the Royal Commission, p297.
30. Maurice, Life of Octavia Hill, p. 270.
31.  Hill, ‘Organised work’, p. 222.
32. Octavia Hill, ‘The importance of aiding the poor without almsgiving,’ Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, 1869, p. 589.
33. Paul Reeves, Affordable and Social Housing: Policy and Practice, London, 2014, p. 63.
34. Louisa Lee Schuyler, ‘Address at the general meeting, December 16, 1874’, Third Annual Report of the State Charities Aid Association, New York, 1875, pp. 50–1.
35. E. Moberly Bell, Octavia Hill: A Biography, London, 1942, p. 185.
36. Helen Dendy Bosanquet, Social Work in London 1869 to 1912: A History of the Charity Organisation Society, London, 1914, p. 53.
37. Octavia Hill, letters to The Times, 4 and 6 March 1901.
38. Tristram Hunt, ‘Octavia Hill – her life and legacy’, National Trust Magazine, Spring 2012, to mark the centenary of her death.
39. Maurice, Life of Octavia Hill, p. 582.
40. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, London, 1776, bk. I, ch. II, para 12.
41. ibid, bk. I, ch. II, para 9.
42. Robert Owen, The Life of Robert Owen, London, 1857, pp. 30–1.
43. G. D. H. Cole, The Life of Robert Owen, London, 1925, pp. 75–88.
44. Robert Owen, Observations on the Effect of the Manufacturing System: With Hints for the Improvement of Those Parts of It Which Are Most Injurious to Health and Morals, London, Edinburgh and Glasgow, 1815 (2nd edn, 1817), p. 9.
45. In evidence to a House of Commons Committee, 26 April 1816.
46. ibid.
47. A detailed study of Owen’s educational ideas can be found in Margaret Cole, Robert Owen: Industrialist, Reformer, Visionary, London, 1925 (Bicentenary Association edn, 1971), p. 9.
48. ‘The Silent Monitor’, New Lanark World Heritage Site, 2019.
49. Paul S. Greenlaw and William D. Biggs, Modern Personnel Management, Philadelphia, PA, 1979, p. 526.
50. Robert Owen, A New View of Society: Second Essay on the Principle of the Formation of Human Character, London, 1813, p. 18.
51. George Holyoake, Sixty Years of an Agitator’s Life, London, 1892, p. 17.
52. ‘A new view of society’, Robert Owen and New Lanark, Open University.
53. ‘Robert Owen – The development of Owen’s thought’, Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy, ed. R. J. Barry Jones, vol. 2, London, 2001, p. 1,191.
54. Michael J. St Clair, Millenarian Movements in Historical Context, New York, 1992, pp. 290–1.
55. Robert Owen, Report to the County of Lanark of a Plan for Relieving Public Distress, and Removing Discontent, by Giving Permanent, Productive Employment, to the Poor and Working Classes, Glasgow, 1820.
56. A. L. Morton, A People’s History of England, London, 1938, p. 368.
57. Ophélie Siméon, ‘Robert Owen: the father of British socialism?’, Books and Ideas, Collège de France, Paris, 10 December 2012.
58. Quoted in Max Beer, A History of British Socialism, vol. II, London, 1919, p. 174.
59. Robert Balgarnie, Sir Titus Salt, Baronet: His Life and its Lessons, London, 1878, p. 131.
60. George Makepeace Towle, ‘Saltaire and its founder’, Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, New York, May 1872, p. 834.
61. Abraham Holroyd, Saltaire and its Founder, Bradford, 1873, p. xii.
62. Balgarnie, Sir Titus Salt, 128.
63. Owen, English Philanthropy, 382.
64. David James, ‘Sir Titus Salt, first baronet (1803–1876)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford, 2004.
65. ibid.
66. David Owen, English Philanthropy, 395.
67. ibid, p. 413.
68. ibid.
69. The Times, 7 January 1907.
70. Duke of Wellington to Angela Burdett-Coutts, 14 August 1847, quoted in Clara Burdett-Patterson, Angela Burdett-Coutts and the Victorians, London, 1953.
71. Françoise Le Jeune, Charity, Social Control and the White Empire: Angela Burdett-Coutts and Charles Dickens’ Urania Cottage, Reforming Prostitutes for the Colonial Market, Université de Nantes, working paper, 2014.
72. Charles C. Osborne, ed., Letters of Charles Dickens to the Baroness Burdett-Coutts, New York, 1932. Osborne was Lady Coutts’s private secretary (1887–98) and the editor of the Dickens-Burdett-Coutts correspondence, of which only Dickens’s letters survive.
73. Le Jeune, Charity, Social Control and the White Empire, p. 9.
74. Dickens to Burdett-Coutts, April 1845, quoted in ibid.
75. Dickens to John Foster, 24 September 1843, The Selected Letters of Charles Dickens, Jenny Hartley, Oxford, 2012, p. 124.
76. Owen, English Philanthropy, 418.
77. The Times, 29 April 1869.
78. George Hill to Bishop Garrett and Angela Burdett-Coutts, 17 November 1859, Columbia Mission Papers.
79. Dickens to Mrs Morson, 4 January 1854, Letters of Charles Dickens, G. Storey, K. Tillotson and A. Easson, Oxford, 1993, pp. 654–5.
80. Le Jeune, Charity, Social Control and the White Empire, p. 6.
81. Duke of Wellington to Angela Burdett-Coutts, 12 April 1847.
82. Owen, English Philanthropy, 416.
83. Clara Burdett-Patterson, Angela Burdett-Coutts and the Victorians, London, 1953, p. 40.
84. Angela Burdett-Coutts’s Eulogy, King Edward VII, 30 December 1906, quoted in ibid, Appendix 1.
85. Quoted in Richard Cavendish, ‘Angela Burdett-Coutts’, History Today, 64:4, April 2014.
86. Sarah Flew, Philanthropy in the Funding of the Church of England 1856 to 1914, London, 2015, pp. 106–7.
87. The Origin and Objects of the Systematic Beneficence Society, 15, London 1862, p. 27, detailed in Appendix A, p. 52.
88. A popular paraphrase of ‘Having, first, gained all you can, and, secondly, saved all you can, then give all you can.’ John Wesley, Sermon 50 on ‘The use of money’, The Works of the Reverend John Wesley, A. M., ed. John Emory, New York, 1840, vol. I, p. 446.
89. The Benefactor, journal of the Systematic Beneficence Society, 1863, quoted in Flew, Philanthropy, p. 107.
90. ibid, p. 106.
91. Robert Barbour, Speech on the Systematic Beneficence Society in the Free Trade Hall, Manchester, 1861 (misdated 1832), pp. 10–11.
92. The Poor Law Report of 1834, London, 1974, p. 117.
93. Owen, English Philanthropy, 513.
94. Helen Dendy Bosanquet, Social Work in London, London, 1914, pp. 341–2.
95. Llewelyn Davies, The Times, January 1889, quoted in ibid, p. 342.
96. Owen, English Philanthropy, 221.
97. Kathleen Jones, The Making of Social Policy in Britain: From the Poor Law to the New Labour, London, 2000, p. 63.
98. Gertrude Himmelfarb, ‘The age of philanthropy’, Wilson Quarterly, 21:2, 1997, p. 51.
99. Charity Organisation Society, quoted in Rosemary Rees, Poverty and Public Health 1815–1948, Oxford, 2001, p. 193.
100. Owen, English Philanthropy, 235.
101. Benedict Nightingale, Charities, London, 1973, p. 111.
102. Stephen Ziliak, ‘Self-reliance before the welfare state: evidence from the Charity Organization Movement in the United States’, Journal of Economic History, 64:2, 2004, pp. 433–61.
103. Robert F. Haggard, ‘Memoir on pauperism and sin, organized charity, and the poor law in Victorian England’, Essays in History, University of Virginia, VA, 39, 1998.
104. The Times, 6 December 1898 and. 22 December 1898.
105. The Christian Socialist: A Journal for Those who Work and Think, vols 1–4, London, 1884, p. 29.
106. M. Cormack, ‘Developments in casework’, Voluntary Social Services, ed. A. F. C. Bourdillon, London, 1945, p. 94.
107. The result of Booth’s investigations, Labour and Life of the People, were published 1889–1903. The final edition of the book revealed that 35 per cent were living in abject poverty. David Fearon, Charles Booth, Mapping London’s Poverty, 1885–1903, Santa Barbara Center for Spatially Integrated Social Science, 2002.
108. Geoffrey Finlayson, Citizen, State and Social Welfare in Britain 1830–1900, Oxford, 1994, p. 38.
109. ‘William Booth’, Encyclopaedia Britannica, rev. 2018.
110. Owen, English Philanthropy, 244.
111. Alan Mocatta, ‘Frederic David Mocatta, 1828–1905’, Transactions & Miscellanies, Jewish Historical Society of England, 23, 1969–70, p. 8.
112. ibid.
113. Jewish Encyclopedia, New York and London, 1906.
114. Mocatta, ‘Frederic David Mocatta’, p. 9.
115. In his will in 1902 he lists institutions to which he would have left money had it not been for their voting systems; ibid.
116. Mortimer Epstein, ‘Frederic David Mocatta’, Dictionary of National Biography, 1912 supplement, p. 626.
117. Derek Penslar, Shylock’s Children: Economics and Jewish Identity in Modern Europe, Berkeley, CA, 2001, pp. 99–100.
118. Derek Penslar, ‘The origins of modern Jewish philanthropy’, ed. W. F. Ilchman, S. N. Katz, A. L. Queen, Bloomington, IN, 1998, p. 202.
119. Penslar quoting Der Orient, V:19, 7 May 1844. Another example of this type of writing about the Jewish poor, headed ‘Jiidisch-soziale Fragen’ by an anonymous author from Aachen, can be seen in the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums, XIII, 19 February, 26 February and 5 March 1849.
120. Penslar, ‘The origins of modern Jewish philanthropy’, pp. 202–3.
121. Owen, English Philanthropy, 422.
122. ibid, pp. 422–3.
123. Epstein, Frederic David Mocatta, p. 627.
124. Owen, English Philanthropy, 426.
125. Lloyd P. Gartner, The Jewish Immigrant in England, 1870 to 1914, London, 1960, p. 164.
126. Owen, English Philanthropy, 426–7.
127. F. D. Mocatta to C. S. Loch, 1886, quoted in Ada Mocatta, F. D. Mocatta, London, 1960, p. 164.
128. Charity Organisation Review, February 1905, p. 106.
129. Owen, English Philanthropy, 427.
130. Vivian Lipman, A Century of Social Service 1859–1959: The History of the Jewish Board of Guardians, London, 1959, p. 139.
131. The Journal of George Fox, 1650, ed. J. L. Nickalls, Cambridge, 1952, pp. 58, 61, 463.
132. Deborah Cadbury, Chocolate Wars, London, 2010, p. xii.
133. 13 Cha II S2 c1 – the first of the ‘Test Acts’ designed to restrict public offices to members of the Church of England and exclude Catholics and nonconformists.
134. Richard Turnbull, Quaker Capitalism: Lessons for Today, Oxford, 2014, 7, 16–17.
135. George Cadbury, 1901, quoted in Elizabeth Isichei, Victorian Quakers, Oxford, 1970, p.
136. General Advices, Society of Friends Yearly Meeting, 1883, as quoted in T. A. B. Corley, ‘Changing Quaker attitudes to wealth, 1690–1950’, in Religion, Business and Wealth in Modern Britain, ed D. J. Jeremy, London, 1998.
137. Richard Turnbull, Quaker Capitalism: Lessons for Today, Oxford, 2014.
138. H. M. Davies, ‘John Cadbury (1801–1889)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 2004, rev. Christine Clark 2013.
139. Turnbull, Quaker Capitalism, p. 31.
140. I. A. Williams, George Cadbury, (1839–1922), Rev. Robert Fitzgerald, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 2004, rev. 2016.
141. Adrian Raymond Bailey and John R. Bryson, ‘A Quaker experiment in town planning: George Cadbury and the construction of Bournville model village’, Quaker Studies: Vol. 11: Iss. 1, 2007, Article 6.
142. Williams, George Cadbury.
143. Owen, English Philanthropy, 436.
144. George Cadbury, quoted in H. G. Wood, ‘George Cadbury’, Christian Social Reformers of the Nineteenth Century, ed. H. Martin, London, 1933, pp.190–1.
145. Owen, English Philanthropy, 438.
146. Quoted in J. Kimberley, ‘Edward Cadbury: A Neglected Management Thinker?’, Friends Quarterly, 4, 2013.
147. James Walvin, The Quakers: Money and Morals, London, 1997, p184, 187.
148. A. G. Gardiner, The Life of George Cadbury, London, 1923, p. 48.
149. Walvin, The Quakers, p. 189; P. Henslowe, Ninety Years On: An Account of the Bournville Village Trust, Birmingham, 1984.
150. W. A. Harvey, The Model Village and its Cottages: Bournville, London, 1906, pp. 9–10.
151. Letter from George Cadbury to A. P. Walker, 1894, Birmingham Central Reference Library MS 1536.
152. Bailey and Bryson, ‘A Quaker experiment in town planning: George Cadbury and the construction of Bournville model village’, p. 101.
153. ibid, p. 103. A copy of George Cadbury’s Suggested Rules of Health can be found in the Bourneville Trust Estate Collection (MS 1536/Box 6) in the archives of Birmingham City Council.
154. Richenda Scott, Elizabeth Cadbury, 1858–1951, London, 1955, p. 75.
155. Owen, English Philanthropy, 438.
156. Gardiner, The Life of George Cadbury, p. 105.
157. Owen, English Philanthropy, 438.
158. Bailey and Bryson, ‘A Quaker experiment in town planning: George Cadbury and the construction of Bournville model village’, 109.
159. Owen, English Philanthropy, p. 439.
160. ibid, p. 440.
161.  ibid, p. 435.
162. ibid, pp. 440, 442.
163. Gardiner, The Life of George Cadbury, p. 117.
164. Williams, George Cadbury.
165. George Glenton and William Pattinson, The Last Chronicle of Bouverie Street, London, 1963, p. 25.
166. T. A. B. Corley, ‘Changing Quaker attitudes to wealth, 1690–1950’, Religion, Business and Wealth in Modern Britain, ed. D. J. Jeremy, London, 1998, p. 144.
167. Glenton and Pattinson, The Last Chronicle, p. 25.
168. Owen, English Philanthropy, p. 439.
169. Gardiner, Life of George Cadbury, p. 235.
170. Cadbury, Chocolate Wars, p. xv.
171.  Anne Vernon, A Quaker Business Man: The Life of Joseph Rowntree 1836–1925, London, 1958, p. 64.

The interview with Trevor Pears was conducted on 11 September 2019